Period: Emerged in the 17th century, peaking in the 18th century. One of the most powerful indigenous challenges to Mughal supremacy and later, the British.
Region: Originated in the Deccan plateau (present-day Maharashtra). ๐๏ธ
Geographical Factors: Hilly, rugged terrain fostered guerrilla warfare tactics and a strong sense of community.
Bhakti Movement Influence: Spiritual egalitarianism preached by saints like Tukaram, Namdev, Eknath fostered a sense of unity and cultural identity (Maharashtra Dharma). ๐
Language: Marathi language and literature acted as a unifying force. ๐ฃ๏ธ
Rise: Emerged from small feudal chiefdoms (jagirs) into a formidable empire under Shivaji Maharaj.
II. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1627/1630 – 1680 CE) ๐
Founder: The architect and founder of the independent Maratha Kingdom.
Early Life:
Born in Shivneri Fort. Son of Shahaji Bhonsle (a prominent Maratha jagirdar in Bijapur Sultanate) and Jijabai. ๐ถ
Influenced by his mother Jijabai (devotion, courage) and guardian Dadaji Kondadev (administration, military training).
Took oath of Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule of Hindu people) at Rohideshwar Temple. โจ
Forts: Began career by capturing forts like Torna (1646), Chakan, Purandar. ๐ฐ
โ๏ธ Killing of Afzal Khan (1659 CE): Bijapur general Afzal Khan sent to subdue Shivaji. Shivaji used his famous waghnakh (tiger claws) to kill him near Pratapgad Fort. Outcome: Major victory, boosted Maratha morale and established Shivaji’s military prowess. ๐ช
โ๏ธ Battle of Kolhapur (1659 CE): Defeated Bijapuri forces.
โ๏ธ Siege of Panhala (1660 CE): Bijapuri forces besieged Panhala, Shivaji escaped to Vishalgad.
โ๏ธ Battle of Umberkhind (1661 CE): Defeated Mughal general Kartalab Khan.
Treaty of Purandar (1665 CE):
Mughal General Jai Singh I (Amber) besieged Purandar Fort. Shivaji was compelled to sign the treaty.
Outcome: Shivaji surrendered 23 forts and acknowledged Mughal suzerainty. Agreed to send his son Sambhaji as a Mansabdar to the Mughal court.
Agra Visit & Escape (1666 CE): Shivaji visited Aurangzeb’s court at Agra, was insulted and imprisoned. Famously escaped by hiding in a fruit basket. ๐งบ
Resumption of Hostilities: Recovered most forts lost in Purandar treaty.
โ๏ธ Battle of Salher (1672 CE): First pitched battle where Marathas decisively defeated a large Mughal army.
Coronation (1674 CE): Crowned Chhatrapati (paramount sovereign) at Raigad Fort (his capital), asserting independent Hindu rule. Performed Vedic rites, asserting Kshatriya status. ๐
Revenue collected directly from peasants (Ryotwari).
Assessed land based on productivity (using Kathi – measuring rod).
Chauth: 1/4th of revenue paid to Marathas as protection money from Mughal/other raids.
Sardeshmukhi: Additional 1/10th levied on territories claimed by Marathas.
Justice: Simple, based on local customs (Panchayat).
Religious Policy: Tolerant towards all religions; respected saints of all faiths; protected mosques and Muslim holy men. ๐
III. Successors & The Rise of the Peshwas (1680 – 1818 CE) ๐
A. Shivaji’s Immediate Successors:
Sambhaji (1680-1689 CE): Son of Shivaji. Able administrator and warrior, but captured and executed by Aurangzeb. โ๏ธ
Rajaram (1689-1700 CE): Younger son of Shivaji. Continued resistance against Mughals from Jinji (Tamil Nadu) for years.
Tarabai (1700-1707 CE): Rajaram’s widow, regent for her son Shivaji II. Led effective resistance against Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns. Fierce warrior and administrator. ๐ฆธโโ๏ธ
Shahu (1707-1749 CE): Sambhaji’s son, released by Bahadur Shah I (Mughal Emperor) after Aurangzeb’s death. Began the Maratha War of Succession with Tarabai.
B. The Age of the Peshwas (De Facto Rulers):
The office of Peshwa (Prime Minister) became hereditary and the de facto ruling power of the Maratha Confederacy, overshadowing the Chhatrapati.
Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720 CE):
First prominent Peshwa. Appointed by Shahu.
Consolidated Maratha power, recognized as a legitimate force by the Mughals.
Treaty of Lonavala/Delhi (1719 CE): Obtained Chauth and Sardeshmukhi rights over Mughal Deccan, legitimizing Maratha claims. ๐
Baji Rao I (1720-1740 CE):
“Fighting Peshwa”, greatest of all Peshwas, known for rapid cavalry movements. ๐
Expansion: Expanded Maratha power aggressively into North India.
โ๏ธ Battle of Palkhed (1728 CE):Decisively defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk (Hyderabad) using guerrilla tactics. Outcome: Forced Nizam to accept Maratha rights to Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
Marathas reached Delhi’s gates (1737).
Foundation of Maratha Confederacy: Under him, the Maratha Empire transformed into a confederacy of powerful Maratha chiefs (Scindias, Holkars, Gaekwads, Bhonsles). This decentralized power would later contribute to its downfall.
Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740-1761 CE):
Further extended Maratha power. Moved capital from Satara to Pune (Peshwa’s seat). ๐๏ธ
Maratha power reached its zenith, extending from Bengal to Karnataka, but spread too thin.
Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE):
Combatants: Maratha Confederacy (under Sadashivrao Bhau, Peshwa’s cousin) vs. Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghan ruler) & his Indian allies (Rohillas, Nawab of Awadh).
Outcome:Catastrophic and decisive defeat for Marathas. Many top Maratha leaders killed (Sadashivrao Bhau, Vishwasrao). Signaled the end of Maratha dominance in North India. Outcome: Paved way for the rise of British power in India by removing the strongest native power. ๐
Madhavrao I (1761-1772 CE):
Known as the “Resurrectionist” for reviving Maratha power after Panipat.
Restored Maratha supremacy in North India and brought various chiefs under control.
His premature death was a great blow to the Maratha cause. ๐ฅ
C. Later Peshwas & Anglo-Maratha Wars:
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782 CE):
Cause: British intervention in Maratha internal succession (support for Raghunathrao).
Outcome:Treaty of Salbai (1782 CE). Stalemate, Marathas largely retained territory. Outcome: Gave the British 20 years to consolidate power in Bengal, while Marathas remained dominant in Deccan. โณ
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805 CE):
Cause: Internal disputes among Maratha chiefs (Peshwa Baji Rao II sought British help after being defeated by Holkar). Treaty of Bassein (1802 CE) between Baji Rao II and British.
Outcome: British decisively defeated Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle separately. Outcome: Maratha power severely crippled. British gained vast territories. ๐
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818 CE):
Cause: British desire for complete paramountcy, continuation of Pindari War by British.
Outcome:British decisively defeated all Maratha chiefs. Outcome: The Peshwa-ship was abolished, Peshwa Baji Rao II was exiled to Bithoor. Maratha territories were annexed. End of the Maratha Empire. ๐
IV. Administration of the Maratha Confederacy ๐๏ธ
Decentralized Power: After Shivaji, power shifted from Chhatrapati to Peshwas, and then distributed among powerful Maratha noble families (Confederacy).
Peshwa (Pune): De facto head.
Bhonsle (Nagpur):
Gaekwad (Baroda):
Holkar (Indore):
Scindia (Gwalior):
Revenue System:
Continued Shivaji’s Ryotwari system (direct collection from peasants).
Chauth & Sardeshmukhi: Became key sources of revenue from conquered or protected territories, but often led to resentment and resistance. ๐ธ
Military:
Cavalry: remained the core, but adapted to include more regular infantry and artillery (especially after Panipat III).
Forts: Still crucial for defense.
Less reliance on pure guerrilla tactics as they grew into an empire.
Justice: Village level Panchayats and higher courts (Nyayadhish).
V. Society & Economy ๐ฅ
Society:
Caste System: Still prevalent, though Bhakti movement softened some rigidities.
Status of Women: Generally respected. Many women (Jijabai, Tarabai, Ahilyabai Holkar) played active roles in administration and politics. ๐ฉโ๐ผ
Religious Tolerance: Continued Shivaji’s policy of tolerance, though there were instances of religious orthodoxy.
Economy:
Agrarian: Agriculture was the primary occupation. ๐พ
Trade: Significant internal and external trade, especially with Arabian, Persian, and European merchants through coastal ports.
Forts: Maratha architecture is best reflected in their extensive network of hill forts (e.g., Raigad, Sindhudurg, Lohagad, Pratapgad, Torna). ๐ฐ
Palaces (Wadas): Peshwas built grand wadas (mansions/palaces) in Pune (e.g., Shaniwar Wada – largely destroyed).
Temples: Built and renovated numerous temples (e.g., Bhuleshwar Temple, Jyotiba Temple).
Modest Scale: Generally less extravagant than Mughal architecture due to focus on military and strategic needs.
Painting:
Developed a distinct style, often depicting scenes from mythology, court life, and battle.
Influence from Rajput and Deccan schools. ๐ผ๏ธ
Literature:
Marathi: Golden age for Marathi literature, especially under the Varkari saints (Tukaram, Eknath, Dnyaneshwar).
Historical Literature: Emergence of Bakhars (chronicles) that recorded Maratha history and events. ๐
Peshwas also patronized Sanskrit learning.
VII. Reasons for Maratha Decline ๐
Decentralization & Confederacy: The shift from a centralized kingdom under Shivaji to a confederacy of independent chiefs (Scindias, Holkars, Gaekwads, Bhonsles) led to internal disunity, rivalries, and lack of a unified command. ๐งฉ
Lack of Strong Leadership: After Madhavrao I, there was a void of capable Peshwas and a strong Chhatrapati. ๐งโ๐ฆฏ
Military Weaknesses:
While individually brave, Maratha armies often lacked the disciplined infantry, modern artillery, and superior military organization of the British.
Over-reliance on cavalry and guerrilla warfare became less effective against a well-equipped, disciplined British army.
Recruitment of mercenaries (Pindaris) further weakened internal discipline. ๐น
Economic Strain:
The collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi alienated the conquered populace and led to constant warfare, draining resources.
Lack of a robust, stable revenue system and economic development compared to their military expansion. ๐ฐ
Lack of Political Foresight: Failed to understand the true nature and long-term ambitions of the British. Intervened in local disputes, allowing the British to gain a foothold. ๐ฌ๐ง
Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE): This single defeat was a catastrophic blow, decimating their leadership and manpower, and shattering their prestige in North India. ๐ฅ
Internal Dissensions: Continuous power struggles (e.g., succession crisis after Madhavrao I, Raghunathrao’s ambitions) weakened them from within. ๐
Rise of British Power: The British, with their superior organization, resources from Bengal, advanced military technology, and unified command, systematically dismantled the fragmented Maratha power.