Period: Dominant imperial power in Indian subcontinent from 16th to 18th century, with nominal rule until 1857.
Origin: Founded by Babur, a Central Asian ruler, descendant of Timur (paternally) and Genghis Khan (maternally). ๐
Foundation: Established after the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate.
Significance: Created one of the largest and wealthiest empires of its time, known for its administrative innovations, cultural synthesis, and architectural grandeur. ๐
II. Major Mughal Emperors & Key Events ๐
1. Babur (1526 – 1530 CE):
Background: Prince of Ferghana (Uzbekistan). Driven out, established kingdom in Kabul. ๐๏ธ
Key Battles & Outcomes:
โ๏ธ First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE):Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (last Sultan of Delhi). Outcome: Marked the end of Delhi Sultanate and beginning of Mughal Rule in India. Babur’s superior artillery (cannons, matchlocks) and tulughma (flanking) tactics were decisive. ๐ฅ
โ๏ธ Battle of Khanwa (1527 CE):Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar, a formidable Rajput confederacy. Outcome: Consolidated Mughal power in North India, removed the most significant challenge to Babur’s nascent empire. Babur declared Jihad and assumed title of Ghazi. ๐
โ๏ธ Battle of Chanderi (1528 CE):Defeated Medini Rai (Rajput ruler of Malwa). Outcome: Further weakened Rajput resistance in Central India.
โ๏ธ Battle of Ghagra (1529 CE):Defeated the Afghan confederacy (under Mahmud Lodi) and Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal. Outcome: Secured eastern frontiers, extending Mughal control up to Bihar.
Contributions: Laid foundation of Mughal Empire, wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) in Chagatai Turkic. Introduced Persian garden concept (Charbagh). Died in Agra, buried in Kabul. ๐ณ
2. Humayun (1530 – 1540 CE & 1555 – 1556 CE):
Challenges: Faced formidable Afghan rivals (Sher Shah Suri) and internal issues (rebellious brothers). ๐ช๏ธ
Key Battles & Outcomes:
โ๏ธ Battle of Chausa (1539 CE):Defeated by Sher Shah Suri. Outcome: Humayun barely escaped, lost much of his army.
โ๏ธ Battle of Kannauj / Bilgram (1540 CE):Decisively defeated by Sher Shah Suri. Outcome: Humayun lost his throne and was forced into exile for 15 years (spent in Persia and Sindh). Interregnum of Sur Dynasty (1540-1555 CE). exile
โ๏ธ Battle of Sirhind (1555 CE):Defeated Sikandar Sur (a successor of Sher Shah). Outcome: Humayun regained the Delhi throne.
Contributions: Laid groundwork for Mughal architecture in India (Humayun’s Tomb began later). Emphasized astronomy and astrology. Died from a fall from his library stairs. ๐
3. Akbar (1556 – 1605 CE):
Regency: Initially ruled under guardian Bairam Khan.
Consolidation & Expansion: Considered the real founder and consolidator of the Mughal Empire. ๐
Key Battles & Outcomes:
โ๏ธ Second Battle of Panipat (1556 CE): Mughal forces (under Bairam Khan) decisively defeated Hemu (Hindu general who controlled Agra & Delhi). Outcome: Secured Akbar’s throne, permanently establishing Mughal rule after Sur interregnum. ๐ช
Conquest of Malwa (1561 CE).
Conquest of Rajasthan:
โ๏ธ Siege of Chittor (1568 CE): Captured Mewar’s capital after fierce Rajput resistance. Outcome: Significant strategic victory, but Mewar’s spirit remained unbroken.
โ๏ธ Battle of Haldighati (1576 CE): Mughal forces (under Man Singh) defeated Rana Pratap of Mewar. Outcome: Rana Pratap continued guerrilla warfare, never accepting Mughal suzerainty. Symbolic importance for Rajput resistance. ๐
Conquest of Gujarat (1572 CE): Gained access to Arabian Sea trade.
Conquest of Bengal (1576 CE).
Conquest of Kashmir (1586 CE).
Conquest of Sindh (1591 CE).
Deccan Campaigns: Annexed Khandesh (1591), parts of Ahmednagar (1600).
Religious Policy:
Sulh-i-Kul (Peace to All): Policy of universal tolerance. ๐๏ธ
Abolished Jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims) in 1564.
Abolished Pilgrim Tax on Hindus.
Married Rajput princesses (e.g., Jodha Bai) without conversion, gave them high status.
Established Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri for inter-faith dialogue (1575). ๐ฃ๏ธ
Promulgated Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith) in 1582 (a syncretic spiritual path, not a religion).
Administrative Reforms:
Mansabdari System: Graded administrative & military system (rank zat & cavalry sawar). Paid in cash or Jagirs. ๐๏ธ
Land Revenue System (Todar Mal’s Bandobast/Dahsala system): Fixed revenue based on 10-year average yield & prices; measured land, classified into four types. Very efficient. ๐พ
Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas: Public and private audience halls.
Art & Architecture: Built Fatehpur Sikri (capital for a period) โ Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai’s Palace. Agra Fort, Lahore Fort. Humayun’s Tomb (completed by his wife, setting precedent for Mughal architecture). Mughal miniature painting flourished. ๐จ
Literature: Patronized scholars, had ‘Navratnas’ (Nine Jewels) in his court (Birbal, Tansen, Todar Mal, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Man Singh etc.). Ain-i-Akbari & Akbarnama by Abul Fazl. ๐
4. Jahangir (1605 – 1627 CE):
Name: Prince Salim, took title ‘Jahangir’ (Conqueror of the World).
Consolidation: Continued father’s policies, but with less reformist zeal.
Key Events:
Executed Guru Arjan Dev (5th Sikh Guru) for blessing Prince Khusrau’s rebellion. โ๏ธ
Loss of Kandahar to Persians (1622).
Arrival of Sir Thomas Roe (English ambassador from King James I) in 1615, seeking trade rights.
Contributions: Known for his ‘Chain of Justice’ (Zanjir-i-Adl) at Agra Fort. Great connoisseur of art, particularly Mughal miniature painting (reached its zenith). Patronized flora and fauna studies. His wife Nur Jahan was highly influential. Wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (autobiography). ๐ผ๏ธ
Architecture:Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula (Agra) โ first Mughal structure entirely of white marble with Pietra Dura (inlay work). Shanti Niketan (Kashmir).
5. Shah Jahan (1628 – 1658 CE):
Golden Age of Mughal Architecture: Reign is considered the zenith of Mughal architecture. ๐
Key Events:
Daughters: Jahanara, Roshanara, Gauhara Begum. Sons: Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb, Murad Bakhsh.
Famine in Deccan (1630-32).
Loss of Kandahar to Persians again (1649).
War of Succession (1657-1658 CE): Fought between his sons. Outcome: Aurangzeb emerged victorious, imprisoning Shah Jahan in Agra Fort. โ๏ธ
Contributions:
Architecture:
Taj Mahal (Agra): Built for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. A wonder of the world. Pure white marble, exquisite Pietra Dura. ๐ค
Red Fort (Delhi): Built his new capital Shahjahanabad (Delhi), containing Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid.
Jama Masjid (Delhi): One of India’s largest mosques.
Lahore Fort’s Shish Mahal.
Peacock Throne: Jewel-studded throne (later taken by Nadir Shah).
Literature: Patronized Persian and Hindi literature.
Religious Policy: More orthodox than Akbar or Jahangir; reimposed Pilgrim Tax on Hindus, destroyed some Hindu temples (e.g., at Orchha).
6. Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707 CE):
Name: Assumed title ‘Alamgir’ (Conqueror of the World).
Expansion: Expanded Mughal Empire to its greatest territorial extent. ๐บ๏ธ
Religious Policy: Highly orthodox Sunni Muslim ruler.
Re-imposed Jizya (1679).
Forbid Sati, Jharokha Darshan, Nauroz festival.
Destroyed numerous Hindu temples (e.g., Kashi Vishwanath, Somnath, Mathura’s Keshava Rai temple).
Executed Guru Tegh Bahadur (9th Sikh Guru) for refusing to convert to Islam. ๐ช
Favored Muslim officials and scholars.
Key Conflicts & Outcomes:
Deccan Wars: Engaged in prolonged and costly wars in the Deccan against the Marathas (Shivaji and his successors) and the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur and Golconda).
โ๏ธ Siege of Jinji (1690-1698 CE): Longest siege, ultimately inconclusive as Maratha capital shifted.
Annexed Bijapur (1686 CE) & Golconda (1687 CE).Outcome: While militarily successful in annexing these sultanates, it further destabilized the Deccan, leading to protracted guerrilla warfare by Marathas. This drained Mughal resources and manpower. ๐ฐ
Rajput Uprisings: Faced rebellions from Rathore Rajputs of Marwar after attempting to annex it.
Jat, Satnami, Sikh Rebellions: Faced numerous regional uprisings due to his policies and Deccan drain.
Contributions: Compiled Fatawa-i-Alamgiri (a digest of Muslim law).
Architecture:Badshahi Mosque (Lahore), Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad โ tomb for his wife, often called ‘mini-Taj’). Pearl Mosque in Delhi Fort. Less focus on grand architecture due to constant warfare. ๐
7. Later Mughals (1707 – 1857 CE):
Period of Decline: After Aurangzeb’s death, the empire rapidly fragmented. ๐
Rise of Regional Powers: Emergence of independent states (Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad, Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Rajputs).
Invasions:
โ๏ธ Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739 CE): Persian invader, sacked Delhi, took Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor diamond. Outcome: Major blow to Mughal prestige and treasury; exposed its military weakness. ๐ก๏ธ
Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions (1748-1767 CE): Afghan ruler, fought Third Battle of Panipat (1761 CE) against Marathas. Outcome: Further destabilized North India, accelerated Mughal decline.
British Ascendancy: East India Company gradually gained political control.
โ๏ธ Battle of Plassey (1757 CE): British defeated Nawab of Bengal. Outcome: Marked British political dominance in Bengal.
โ๏ธ Battle of Buxar (1764 CE): British defeated combined forces of Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, Nawab of Awadh, and Mir Qasim of Bengal. Outcome: Decisive British victory, gained Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa; Mughal Emperor became British pensioner. ๐ธ
Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1837-1857 CE): Last Mughal emperor. Proclaimed leader during Revolt of 1857. Outcome: Captured by British, exiled to Rangoon, ending the Mughal dynasty. ๐
III. Administration ๐๏ธ
Central Administration:
Emperor: Supreme authority (civil, military, judicial). Divine right theory (Zill-i-Ilahi).
Wazir/Diwan: Chief Minister, head of finance department (revenue, expenditure).
Mir Bakhshi: Head of military department, maintained Mansabdars’ records.
Mir Saman: In charge of imperial household (stores, karkhanas).
Sadr-us-Sudur: Head of religious endowments & charities.
Qazi-ul-Quzat: Chief Justice.
Waqia Navis: News reporters, spies. โ๏ธ
Provincial Administration:
Empire divided into Subahs (provinces), under a Subahdar (governor).
Subahs divided into Sarkars (districts), under Fauzdar (military head) & Amalguzar (revenue collector).
Sarkars divided into Parganas (sub-districts), under Shiqdar.
Village: Basic unit, largely autonomous. Headed by Mukaddam (headman), Patwari (accountant).
Mansabdari System (Akbar):
Hierarchy: Ranks assigned based on Zat (personal rank) and Sawar (number of cavalry contingent). ๐๏ธ
Function: Unified civil and military administration. All imperial officers (nobles, officials, army officers) were Mansabdars.
Payment: Paid in cash (Naqdi) or through revenue assignments (Jagirs).
Merits: Efficient, centralized recruitment, maintained large army.
Demerits: Led to Jagirdari crisis under Aurangzeb (shortage of Paibaqi land, increased competition for Jagirs, leading to instability). ๐
Land Revenue System:
Zabt System / Dahsala System (Akbar, by Todar Mal):
Measured and classified land based on fertility.
Average produce of last 10 years used to fix state’s share (1/3rd).
Revenue paid in cash.
Batai / Ghalla Bakhshi: Crop-sharing.
Nasaq: Group assessment.
Key Concept: State collected revenue directly from peasants, minimizing intermediaries initially.
Judicial System: Based on Islamic law (Sharia). Emperor was the highest court. Local justice by Qazis, Muftis.
Stratified: Ruling class (Mughal nobility, Zamindars), middle class (merchants, officials), lower class (peasants, artisans, slaves).
Nobility: Diverse (Turani, Irani, Indian Muslims, Rajputs, Marathas). Held high Mansabs, lived luxuriously.
Zamindars: Powerful landholding class, often intermediaries for revenue collection.
Position of Women: Generally subordinate. Purdah common among aristocratic women. Sati continued (Akbar tried to discourage it). Some royal women (Jahanara, Nur Jahan, Zebunissa) wielded significant influence. ๐
Religious Tolerance (Akbar’s era): Policy of Sulh-i-Kul fostered Hindu-Muslim harmony. Deteriorated under Aurangzeb.
Economy:
Agrarian: Agriculture was the backbone. Self-sufficient villages. Cash crops (cotton, indigo, sugarcane, opium) grew. ๐พ
Synthesis: Fusion of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian architectural styles.
Key Features: Use of red sandstone (early Mughals) and white marble (Shah Jahan), onion domes, slender minarets, grand gateways (pishtaqs), large courtyards, extensive use of Pietra Dura (stone inlay), jali (lattice) work, Charbagh style gardens (symmetrical).
Evolution:
Early (Babur, Humayun): Simple, initial Persian influence. Humayun’s Tomb (precursor to Taj).
Akbar: Massive scale, use of red sandstone, eclectic style (incorporating Hindu elements). Fatehpur Sikri (Buland Darwaza, Jama Masjid, Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai’s Palace, Salim Chishti’s Tomb). Agra Fort, Lahore Fort. ๐
Jahangir: Refined elegance, shift to white marble, increased Pietra Dura. Itmad-ud-Daula’s Tomb. Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir). ๐ท
Shah Jahan: Pinnacle of Mughal architecture. Pure white marble, symmetry, extreme refinement. Taj Mahal, Red Fort (Delhi) (with Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas), Jama Masjid (Delhi), Moti Masjid (Agra Fort). ๐ค
Aurangzeb: Less grand, more austere. Badshahi Mosque (Lahore), Bibi Ka Maqbara (Aurangabad).
Mughal Painting (Miniatures):
Akbar: Established a royal Karkhana (workshop). Fusion of Persian (Safavid) and Indian styles. Focus on narrative, portraits, historical events (Akbarnama illustrations). ๐ผ๏ธ
Jahangir: Reached its zenith. Emphasis on naturalism, flora, fauna, portraits, hunting scenes. Mansur (master of animal studies), Bishandas (portraits).
Shah Jahan: Continued, but less individualistic, more formal.
Aurangzeb: Decline in royal patronage, artists dispersed to regional courts (Rajput, Deccan schools).
Literature:
Persian: Official language of court and administration.
Akbarnama & Ain-i-Akbari (Abul Fazl) โ history of Akbar’s reign.
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Jahangir’s autobiography).
Padshahnama (Shah Jahan’s reign).
Dara Shikoh: Translated Upanishads into Persian (Sirr-i-Akbar). ๐
Turkic (Chagatai): Babur’s Tuzuk-i-Baburi.
Hindi & Regional Languages: Patronized by emperors, especially Akbar. Growth of Bhakti literature (Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai). Urdu emerged as a new language (a blend of Persian, Turkish, Arabic, and Indian languages). ๐ฃ๏ธ
Music: Tansen (Akbar’s court musician) a legendary figure. Development of Hindustani classical music. ๐ถ
VI. Reasons for Mughal Decline ๐
Aurangzeb’s Policies:
Religious Intolerance: Re-imposition of Jizya, destruction of temples, persecution of Sikhs, alienated Hindu population (especially Rajputs). ๐ฅ
Deccan Wars: Prolonged, costly wars against Marathas and Deccan Sultanates drained vast resources and manpower, creating a ‘bleeding ulcer’. ๐ฉธ
Weak Successors: After Aurangzeb, a succession of weak and inefficient rulers incapable of holding the vast empire together. ๐
War of Succession: Continuous bloody struggles for the throne among princes weakened the imperial structure and nobility. โ๏ธ
Jagirdari Crisis: Shortage of assignable Jagirs led to intense competition, corruption, and exploitation of peasants. Agrarian crisis resulted. ๐พ
Rise of Independent Regional States: Subahdars (governors) like those in Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad declared de facto independence, weakening central authority. ๐ช
Rise of Marathas: A formidable challenge, adopting guerrilla warfare. Their spread of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi taxes weakened Mughal control. ๐
Foreign Invasions:
Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739): Looted immense wealth from Delhi, shattered Mughal prestige. ๐ฐ
Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Invasions: Repeated Afghan raids further destabilized the empire.
Military Weakness: Mughal army became less efficient, technologically stagnant, reliant on feudal levies, and suffered from internal dissensions.
Economic Decline: Depleted treasury due to continuous wars, luxurious lifestyle, and administrative inefficiency.
Arrival of European Trading Companies: The growing economic and political power of the British, French, Dutch, etc., particularly the British East India Company, led to gradual subjugation of Indian states, including the Mughals.